In the classic and frequently cited article “What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform", Robert Martinson (1974) evaluated over 200 programs, treatments and other interventions in correctional institutions and he concluded, “nothing works”. Martinson’s conclusion had a direct impact on the correctional investment in programs and the subsequent shift from the “medical model” adopted by corrections in the 70s in favor of the warehousing and incapacitation model more prevalent in the 80’s and 90’s. This shift away from the medical model resulted in a corresponding decrease in the investment in correctional programs. Many contend that the direct consequence was the dramatic increase in the correctional population leading to overcrowding and increasingly scarce fiscal resources. A complex meeting of policy issues surrounding budgeting, resources, and social pressure has resulted in a change in direction once more with the mission focus of many jurisdictions on reduction in recidivism and reintegration programs. Some content that the social direction for corrections has come full circle and the country is once again in the 1970's policy mindset. Jurisdictions are once again searching for and implementing effective programs in a correctional setting for a variety of reasons that were the subject of further study in week 11. The "Second Chance Act of 2007" (enacted April 9, 2008 by President Bush) has added philosophical fuel and funding opportunities to that search. There has been an increased emphasis on the performance of correctional systems in producing a “better product” (i.e. an inmate who has improved skills as a result of his incarceration). Lawmakers and correctional stakeholders are now realizing that inmates ill prepared for reentry into their communities create a public safety risk and a public cost burden, and a variety of mega-studies have demonstrated that some programs do in fact “work”. Ed Latessa is one of the champions of research measuring the concept of the "bang for the buck" in identifying programs that demonstrate outcomes that "work". As with any philosophy, there are also many who still contend that no matter what programs one implements, or how much money is spent, there will be no difference in the recidivism rate over time. Included in the topics of study this semester are concepts of vision and mission, strategic planning and the budget process as. Recidivism is a central issue for these program and policy arenas and it is a term that enjoys wide acceptance as a measuring stick for program success. It is also a term that is elusive to many practitioners and a critical step in any valid study of program outcome must define recidivism at the very start of any program implementation. It is obvious that there is not always universal agreement between the stakeholders as to the actual definition of the term "recidivism."
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What does it mean to say that a program “works”? How does one define the measure of success in a correctional intervention? How can correctional systems ensure that program monitors are measuring the proper outcomes to make conclusions regarding program success or failure? While correctional administrators are rarely researchers, they are consumers of research and it is important to understand what questions to ask and how to define terms to insure that those questions are being answered correctly and usefully. Most importantly, the program outcomes are needed to report to the legislature that funds the programs and to the chief executive (generally the Governor) who has supported the agency efforts. Directors/commissioners of correctional agencies must be confident that scarce fiscal resources will only be spent on programs that are effective, efficient, and result in accomplishing the mission, vision, and strategic plan for the program and agency. The agencies need to define terms and analyze similar program outcomes before proposing new programs, continuing existing programs, exploring alternative interventions, or recommending the elimination of existing programs which the administrators determine “don’t work. It is critical to avoid investing in programs proven ineffectual in managing and preparing offenders for reentry. Wasting public dollars in today’s economy will only result in the inevitable wrath of political and public criticism over program failure and for the top administrator, often the loss of employment. Correctional administrators are usually appointed public officials and when the public or the legislature loses confidence in that stewardship, it generally translates into a resignation and subsequent search for an administrator who can deliver the fiscal economy and programmatic results they are looking for. Although most administrators serve at the pleasure of the Governor, a Governor will almost always request that resignation before the program failure reflects on the Office of the Governor. That is why this issue is important to study in coursework leading to an advanced degree in criminal justice management.
Almost every study dealing with the success or failure of a correctional program includes the discussion and measurement of recidivism. There are many alternative definitions of recidivism to consider. As a pragmatic professional, keep in mind that no matter what the rhetoric is by those who develop correctional policy, the fiscal effect on the system is really the bottom line. Few programs survive that do not demonstrate that fewer offenders return to prison which drives up the demand for bed space and the ultimate cost of the correctional system. This is referred to generically as the “recidivism rate.” It is arguably one of the most important measures of success that lead to what has been called the most “bang for the buck.” As you will see, however, recidivism is a very elusive term and it is so important that this class will study the issue of recidivism in detail prior to arriving at the last week’s main topic of “what works in corrections.” This term is bandied about in the media and during legislative hearings with little understanding of the essential parameters that must be defined before making program decisions. As a criminal justice professional, it is time to study this term in detail. It may be one of the few times you have the luxury of focusing so intently on the recidivism issue.
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The final exam is worth 25% of the total class grade and thus it requires that the student put forth the best effort possible with a deliverable that demonstrates graduate level writing and research ability. The paper should be written using proper American Psychological Association (APA) format. There are a few exceptions to the APA format that will apply to this essay:
- Do not write an “abstract” of the essay. An abstract merely wastes space on a short essay such as this that is not designed for publication.
- Do not use subheadings in this essay.
The submitted examination must be a minimum of 10 pages. This examination should be minimally 10 pages in length, double-spaced and adhere to all relevant APA guidelines as previously mentioned, and submitted according to the directions given in your syllabus and the guidance you have received. An essay that is less than 10 pages will be unacceptable and receive a deduction of ten percent (10%) which is the equivalent of 2.5 points for every page less than 10 full pages of text. The cover sheet and the reference page(s) do not apply to this total. If any deduction is taken for a paper that does not meet the minimum requirement for length, this will be the starting grade point, and then the paper will be read and deductions taken from that score. If, for an example, a paper is submitted that includes only 9 pages of text, then the starting grade is reduced from 25 points to 22.5 points and any further deductions will be taken from that total possible score as the paper is read and scored. Please do not write an essay greater than 15 pages exclusive of the title page and reference material. A rich topic such as this could easily result in a very lengthy essay, but it is important to be able to focus and complete this assignment within the parameters that are provided. As previously stated, the cover page and reference age are not included in the page count. You are required to utilize and provide at least five academic references (peer review, refereed, or academic journals) in this essay as defined by the ulrichsweb resource that can be found in the library link and is discussed in the course content. The five (5) articles selected to meet this requirement must not be from the same journal. Once that minimum is met, articles from the same journal may be utilized freely. Remember to revisit the reference provided in the course content and conferences regarding the definition of peer review, refereed and academic journals before completing this assignment. There shall be no use of web site references in this essay. This is purely an exercise in academic research and graduate level thinking and writing ability.
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This essay exam must be submitted in the grade book using Word software as required in the syllabus and by UMUC. Please remember to avoid the use of personal pronouns (I, me, you, we, etc.) in your essay. This issue has been discussed initially in the syllabus and repeated in numerous areas of the course content. The use of such pronouns will reflect upon the tone of the essay up to a deduction of a maximum of five percent (5%) which is the equivalent of 1.25 points. As with the length of the paper, this deduction will be taken at the beginning of the scoring process and then other deductions will apply. The paper will be done completely n New Times Roman with 12-point font and double-spaced. Do not insert multiple hard returns between paragraphs.
This examination will follow a broad APA outline. As stated, do not use additional subheading underneath each section. This outline organization is provided for guidance and not to be duplicated as sections in the final essay.
- Title page. Insure that there is a title or cover page as with the course essays. This can be page 1 of the final or the title page can be left unnumbered and the pagination can start with the first page of actual text starting with the introductory paragraph(s).
- Introduction (Again, Do not use this subheading introduction. This is for descriptive purposes only!)More Details on How to Work on this Paper......
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- Why is the topic of outcome measures and recidivism important to correctional administrators?
- What are some of the key outcome measures both during incarceration and after release in addition to recidivism, used in correctional program evaluation?
- Why is recidivism the most widely accepted outcome measure?
- Why is recidivism arguably the most important of the outcome measures?
- Discussion (Do not use this subheading of "discussion." This is meant to explain what should be in the body of the discussion. No subheadings!)
- What are various definitions of recidivism or measures used in recidivism studies? Cite some individual studies that utilize differing definitions. Insure you provide and cite the reference source for at least two (2) competing definitions of recidivism. Do not use a generic dictionary or web dictionary for these references. Use peer reviewed, academic or refereed journal studies for these definitions. You may also use research found in the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), The National Crime Information Center (NCIS) or the National Institute of Corrections (NIC).
- What are some dimensions on which these definitions vary?
- How do the differing definitions or dimensions affect the findings or decision-making?
- Conclusion (Do not use this subheading "conclusion." This is meant to reinforce the conclusions that are drawn from the essay. Conclusions are included in the final few paragraphs or pages of an academic work.
- Based on the research, what guidance can be given to future researchers on defining recidivism?
- What guidance should be given to correctional administrators and others who “consume” evaluative research concerning what consumers should be cautions of or look for in the research under review and possibly intended for utilization?
- What definition of recidivism that should a progressive and efficient prison system adopt? (This is a mandatory element of the conclusion since it is really the crux of this essay; remember not to use personal pronouns such as "I," "me," "you," etc.)
- Why have you arrived at this specific definition of recidivism? (please be sure to relate it to how the definition affects the issues discussed in the body of the essay)
- References (You will have a reference page as we have covered throughout the semester)
This examination will be graded according to the grading rubric provided for in the syllabus after any mandatory deductions for length, peer reviewed journals and the use of personal pronouns are taken as discussed above.
References
Martinson, R. (1974, Spring). What works? questions and answers about prison reform.
The Public Interest, 35, 22-54.
Summary of provisions of Second Chance Act. (2008, May). Federal Sentencing Reporter, 20
(4), 279-280. DOI: 10.1525/fsr.2008.20.4.279
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